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Inglés de la Torre, Marta
Igual Camacho, Celedonia (dir.); Borrás Blasco, Consuelo (dir.); Gambini Buchón, Juan (dir.) Departament de Fisioteràpia |
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Aquest document és un/a tesi, creat/da en: 2014 | |
In the last two decades, the proportion of people aged over 60 years is
growing faster than any other age group, as a result of both longer life expectancy
and declining fertility rates. As a consequence, the population is growing older
and therefore there is an increasing interest in ageing and how to face age-related
problems. Most of the research in this area has so far focused on survival and the
plausible interventions to increase lifespan. Recently, however, emphasis has shift
to preventing disability (healthspan), rather than merely increasing longevity
(lifespan).
In this context, age-associated frailty has emerged as a geriatric
syndrome, characterized by a decline in physiologic reserve and function across
systems, leading to increased vulnerability and low capacity to cope with external
stressors. Even if there is no consensus on the definition of frailty, it is cl...
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In the last two decades, the proportion of people aged over 60 years is
growing faster than any other age group, as a result of both longer life expectancy
and declining fertility rates. As a consequence, the population is growing older
and therefore there is an increasing interest in ageing and how to face age-related
problems. Most of the research in this area has so far focused on survival and the
plausible interventions to increase lifespan. Recently, however, emphasis has shift
to preventing disability (healthspan), rather than merely increasing longevity
(lifespan).
In this context, age-associated frailty has emerged as a geriatric
syndrome, characterized by a decline in physiologic reserve and function across
systems, leading to increased vulnerability and low capacity to cope with external
stressors. Even if there is no consensus on the definition of frailty, it is clear that
this condition can lead to increasing disability, institutionalization, and even
death.
The most frequently employed criteria of frailty are those defined by
Linda Fried: involuntary weight loss, self-reported exhaustion, low physical
activity, slowness, and low grip strength. However, these criteria are excessively
focused on the musculoskeletal system and may overlook any relationship
between these pathophysiological changes and the presence of cognitive
impairment, the other major source of disability and frailty.
One of the most important features of frailty, from the medical point of
view, is that it refers to a dynamic condition, which means that not all individuals
are frail in the same way, and moreover, a frail individual can become non-frail, if frailty is detected and treated at the onset. Therefore, a great deal of attention
has been focused on finding good biomarkers to help in the diagnosis of frailty
and to prevent adverse outcomes. In this regard, frailty has been linked to some
biomarkers, related to the neuroendocrine, immune, cardiovascular or
musculoskeletal system or metabolism. Frailty has also been associated with
oxidative stress markers, such as 8-Hydroxy-2-deoxy Guanosine (8-oxodG)
oxidized glutathione/reduced glutathione (GSSG/GSH) ratio, malondialdehyde
(MDA), and 4-hydroxy-2,3-nonenal (HNE) in plasma. Recently, it has also been
associated to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a neurotrophin whose
functions are related to neuronal survival/proliferation processes, inflammation
and physical activity. Likewise, some genetic variants have been associated with
frailty. However, all these associations were not clearly established.
The aim of this doctoral thesis was to ascertain whether frailty is indeed
related to functional dependence and cognitive impairment in the Toledo Study
for Healthy Aging (TSHA), as well as to provide some reliable biomarkers of frailty
related to cognitive status, oxidative stress and genetic variation, which may help
in the multidisciplinary health-promoting approach for frail adults.
For this purpose, a representative sample of 776 people was randomly
selected from the TSHA, a longitudinal population-based cohort of 2,488
community dwelling people from Toledo (Spain), aged 65 and over. The sample
included 423 non frail (244 women and 179 men), 288 prefrail (168 women and
120 men) and 65 frail individuals (44 women and 21 men).
First, we investigated if frailty was associated with functional dependence,
both in basic activities of daily living (ADL) and instrumental activities of daily
living (AIDL). For ADL, we compared the average scores obtained for the Katz Index between non frail, prefrail and frail individuals. We found that indeed frail
individuals were more dependent than prefrail and non frail. Prefrail individuals
were also more dependent than non frail. We also investigated whether gender or
age could be mediating our results. Interestingly, no differences between men
and women in the Katz index score within any group nor a strong correlation
between such score and age was found, thus suggesting that the lowest score in
the Katz index, and thus functional dependence in ADL, depends on frailty status,
rather than gender or age.
In the case of AIDL, we compared the average score obtained for the
Lawton Index between non frail, prefrail and frail individuals. We found that frail
individuals were more dependent than prefrail and non frail. Prefrail individuals
were also more dependent than non frail. Once again, the potential influence of
gender or age on this index score was investigated. In this case, we found that
men were more dependent than women, but a strong correlation between the
Katz index score and age did not exist, thus suggesting that functional
dependence in IADL relies on frailty status and gender, but not age.
Next, we aimed to define if frailty was related to cognitive impairment.
For this purpose, we compared the average score obtained for the Mini-Mental
State Examination of Folstein (MMSE) between non frail, prefrail and frail
individuals. This allowed us to observe that indeed frail individuals were more
cognitively-impaired than prefrail and non frail. Prefrail individuals were also
more cognitively-impaired than non frail. We also investigated whether gender or
age may have any influence on our results. As was the case for the katz Index, no
differences between men and women in MMSE index score within any group nor
a strong correlation between such score and age was found, thus suggesting again that the lowest score in the MMSE index, and thus cognitive impairment, depends
on frailty status, rather than gender or age.
The next step was to study if frailty was related to a cognitive impairmentrelated
biomarker, called brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). To achieve
this objective, plasma BDNF levels were measured by enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and were further compared between non frail,
prefrail and frail individuals. We observed that frail individuals displayed lower
plasma BDNF levels than non frail, which has been associated to cognitive
impairment. Once again, the possible influence of gender and age on these results
was examined, and we found that neither gender nor age was related to plasma
BDNF levels. Taken together, these findings suggest that plasma BDNF levels
depend on frailty status, rather than gender or age.
In addition, we aimed to assess if frailty was associated to changes in
oxidative stress biomarkers. In this regard, we determined plasma levels of
malondialdehyde (MDA) by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and
carbonylated proteins by Western blotting in our population, as indicators of lipid
and protein damage, respectively. Furthermore, since gender and age have been
traditionally considered to be key factors influencing oxidative stress parameters,
their possible effect on these biomarkers were studied again.
Regarding to MDA levels, we found that frail people displayed higher
plasma MDA levels than prefrail and non frail. However, such levels were not
different between men and women within any group (non frail, prefrail, frail), nor
were they related to the age of the individuals. These results suggest that plasma
MDA levels, and thus oxidative damage to lipids, depend on frailty status, rather
than gender or age. When studying protein carbonylation levels, we could observe that both
frail and prefrail people showed higher plasma levels of protein carbonyls than
non frail. Interestingly though, plasma protein levels were again not different
between men and women in any group, nor were they related to the age of the
individuals. This may suggest that protein carbonylation, and thus oxidative
damage to proteins is related to frailty status, and not to gender or age.
Finally, we studied the possible influence of genetic variation on this
multisystemic syndrome, through the identification of common variants (known
as single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs) and rare variants. For this purpose
we genotyped 295,988 SNPs and rare variants using Axiom®Exome Genotyping
Arrays (Affymetrix). After applying the quality control filtering, 41,828 SNPs
remained appropriate for the current study. We performed three different types
of analysis: individual, gene and pathway. Interestingly, we found SNPs and rare
variants in genes or pathways related to important physiopathological processes,
such as the musculoskeletal system, cognitive function, energetic metabolism,
stress response and apoptosis.
Taken together, our findings indicate that frailty is related to functional
dependence and cognitive impairment in the TSHA. Furthermore, we have found
that frailty is related to biomarkers related to cognitive function, oxidative stress
and genetic variations. Thus, these biomarkers may be useful in detecting frailty,
and this would open up the possibility of early detection, testing the efficacy of
intervention aimed at treating frailty and preventing its progression to disability.Debido al aumento de la esperanza de vida y a la disminución de la tasa de fecundidad producido en las últimas décadas, la proporción de personas mayores de 60 años está aumentando más rápidamente que cualquier otro grupo de edad. Este envejecimiento de la población ha suscitado un gran interés en el estudio del envejecimiento y en cómo hacer frente a los problemas relacionados con él. Tradicionalmente, la mayor parte de la investigación en este ámbito se ha centrado en la supervivencia y en las posibles intervenciones para prolongar la esperanza de vida. Sin embargo, la tendencia actual es a considerar más importante la prevención de la discapacidad (healthspan) que el simple aumento de la longevidad (lifespan).
En este contexto, surge el concepto de fragilidad, un síndrome geriátrico caracterizado por una disminución de las reservas fisiológicas y la función de múltiples sistemas, lo cual conlleva una mayor vulnerabilidad y baja capacidad para hacer frente a las agresiones externas. Además, la condición de fragilidad aumenta el riesgo de discapacidad, institucionalización e incluso muerte.
Los criterios de fragilidad más empleados son los definidos por Linda Fried: pérdida involuntaria de peso en el último año, sentimiento de agotamiento general referido por el propio paciente, lentitud de la marcha, bajo nivel de actividad física y disminución de la fuerza de agarre. Sin embargo, estos criterios se centran demasiado en el sistema músculo-esquelético y metabólico y podrían obviar la relación entre estos cambios fisiopatológicos y la presencia de deterioro cognitivo, otra fuente importante de discapacidad y fragilidad.
Una de las características más importantes de la fragilidad, desde el punto de vista médico, es que se refiere a una condición dinámica, es decir, no todos los individuos son frágiles de la misma manera y, por otra parte, un individuo frágil puede llegar a no serlo, si dicha fragilidad es detectada y tratada de manera precoz. Por ello, en los últimos años, la búsqueda de biomarcadores que ayuden a su diagnóstico e incluso a su prevención ha cobrado especial importancia.
Por todo ello, el objetivo de esta tesis doctoral fue determinar si la fragilidad está relacionada con la dependencia funcional y el deterioro cognitivo en el Estudio de Toledo de Envejecimiento Saludable (ETES), así como identificar biomarcadores de fragilidad relacionados con el estado cognitivo, el estrés oxidativo y la variación genética, lo cual podría ayudar en el enfoque multidisciplinar hacia la promoción de la salud del paciente frágil.
Para ello, se seleccionaron 776 personas del ETES, un estudio longitudinal de base poblacional formado por 2488 individuos mayores de 65 años y residentes en Toledo (España). La muestra incluyó a 423 sujetos no frágiles (244 mujeres y 179 hombres), 288 prefrágiles (168 mujeres y 120 hombres) y 65 frágiles (44 mujeres y 21 hombres). Como variables clínicas se estudiaron: la dependencia funcional para las actividades básicas de la vida diaria (ABVD) y para las actividades instrumentales de la vida diaria (AIVD), mediante el Índice de Katz e Indice de Lawton, respectivamente, y el deterioro cognitivo, mediante el Mini-Mental Examination de Folstein (MMSE). Como variables bioquímicas se determinaron: niveles plasmáticos de factor neurotrófico derivado del cerebro (BDNF), mediante ELISA, niveles plasmáticos de malondialdehído, mediante cromatografía líquida de alta eficacia, niveles de proteínas carboniladas, mediante Western Blot, y presencia de polimorfismos de nucleótido simple, genes y vías de señalización implicadas en la fragilidad, mediante la tecnología Axiom Genotyping de Affimetrix.
En primer lugar, se estudió si la fragilidad se asociaba con dependencia funcional, tanto para las actividades básicas de la vida diaria (ABVD), como las instrumentales (AIVD). Así, se pudo comprobar cómo los individuos frágiles eran más dependientes para ambas actividades que los prefrágiles y los no frágiles, y que los prefrágiles eran también más dependientes que los no frágiles. Además, se investigó si el género o
la edad podrían estar mediando dichos resultados. En este sentido, sólo se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres en cuanto a la dependencia para las AIVD, de tal manera que los hombres presentaban más dificultades para dichas actividades que las mujeres. En ambos casos, no se encontró una correlación fuerte con la edad.
En cuanto al deterioro cognitivo, se observó que los individuos frágiles presentaban un mayor deterioro cognitivo que los prefrágiles y los no frágiles, y que los prefrágiles también presentaban un mayor deterioro cognitivo que los no frágiles. También investigamos si el género o la edad podían tener alguna influencia en dichos resultados. Tal y como sucedió con el índice de Katz, no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas entre hombres y mujeres en la puntuación obtenida en el MMSE en ningún grupo, ni una fuerte correlación entre dicha puntuación y la edad.
El siguiente paso fue estudiar si la fragilidad se relacionaba con un biomarcador asociado al deterioro cognitivo, llamado factor neurotrófico derivado del cerebro (BDNF). De este modo, se pudo observar que los individuos frágiles mostraban menores niveles de BDNF en plasma que los no frágiles, lo cual se ha asociado con el deterioro cognitivo. Una vez más, se analizó la posible influencia del género y la edad en estos resultados, encontrando que ni el género ni la edad se relacionaban con los niveles de BDNF en plasma.
Por otro lado, se estudió la posible relación entre fragilidad y biomarcadores de estrés oxidativo.En cuanto a los niveles de MDA, se encontró que las personas frágiles mostraban mayores niveles plasmáticos de MDA que las prefrágiles y las no frágiles. Sin embargo, no se observaron diferencias en dichos niveles entre
hombres y mujeres en ningún grupo (no frágil, prefrail, frágil), ni una correlación con la edad de los individuos.
Al estudiar los niveles de carbonilación de proteínas, pudimos observar que tanto los individuos frágiles como los prefrágiles presentaban mayores niveles de carbonilación proteica en plasma que los no frágiles. Además, tal y como sucedió con el MDA, los niveles de proteínas carboniladas en plasma no fueron
diferentes entre hombres y mujeres en ningún grupo, ni tampoco estaban relacionados con la edad de los individuos.
Por último, se estudió la posible influencia de la variación génica sobre este síndrome multisistémico, a través del análisis de variantes comunes (también llamadas polimorfismos de nucleótido simple o SNPs) y variantes raras. De esta manera, encontramos SNPs y variantes raras en genes o vías de señalización relacionadas con importantes procesos fisiopatológicos, tales como el sistema músculoesquelético,
la función cognitiva, el metabolismo energético, la respuesta al estrés o la apoptosis.
Como conclusión, nuestros resultados muestran cómo la fragilidad se relaciona con dependencia funcional y deterioro cognitivo en el ETES. Además, hemos identificado biomarcadores de fragilidad relacionados con la función cognitiva, el estrés oxidativo y la variación génica. Por tanto, estos biomarcadores podrían ser útiles en la detección temprana de la fragilidad, lo cual permitiría probar la eficacia de intervenciones dirigidas su tratamiento y, de este modo, prevenir su progresión hacia la discapacidad.
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